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Territorial Expansion of the Roman World
Hochdorf Bronze Celtic Lion
Courtesy of Barbarians on the Greek Periphery? Origins of Celtic Art
Expansion during the
Early Roman Republic
(509 - 265 B.C.E.)
The Italian peninsula
was inhabited principally by several native tribes before the Greeks settled
there and the Etruscans rose to prominence sometime after 800 B.C.E. The Greeks
founded several city-states in the south of the peninsula and in Sicily, and the
Etruscans rose to power on the western coast where they brought their culture to
the Latin peoples settled in small villages along the Tiber River. Here, three
centuries later, a prosperous urban centre called Rome would emerge. Rome
flourished under the Etruscans but the Latin population resented sovereign
Etruscan rule and joined with other indigenous tribes in a rebellion. The
revolution of 509 B.C.E., which dethroned the Etruscan king and drove his people
from Rome, marks the beginning of the Roman Republic that would see Rome rise to
dominance around the Mediterranean. The Roman Republic continued until 31 B.C.E.
when it was replaced by the Roman Empire that would last well into the fifth
century C.E.
A Topographical Map of Italy
Greek Colonisation of the Mediterranean
650 B.C.E.
The Rise of Rome 380
B.C.E.
Beginning in 437
B.C.E., with the defeat and annexation of neighbouring towns, and over the
course of the next two centuries, Rome gradually expanded its territory and
political dominance over the peninsula. Even though Rome had a superior army, it
was not immune to attack. In 390 B.C.E, Celts swept down from the Po River
valley and captured and sacked Rome. Recovering quickly from this defeat, Rome
went on to successful future campaigns and by 235 B.C.E., after almost incessant
warfare with its neighbouring Etruscan and Italian city-states, all of the
Italian peninsula south of the Po Valley was conquered.
Roman and Carthaginian Territories in the Mediterranean
270 B.C.E.
Rome's successful
conquest of the Italian peninsula created a strong military ethos and provided
the Roman state with considerable manpower. When the unification of the
peninsula brought Rome into conflict with Carthage, a major power that
monopolized western Mediterranean trade from Northern Africa, Rome was inclined
to enter into war. Rome built up a fleet and in the three Punic Wars between 264
and 146 B.C.E., defeated the Carthaginian navy. From Carthage, Rome acquired the
territories of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain and Numidia (modern Tunisia) and
extended its dominance to all of the western Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean after the First Punic War
220 B.C.E.
The Second Punic War
219-202 B.C.E.
Expansion into the
eastern Mediterranean was achieved between 230 and 133 B.C.E. Initially, Rome
intervened in the east to protect itself from possible threat and to protect the
Greek city-states from territorial advances. Rome did not annex any territory at
first, treating Greece and Asia Minor as protectorates, but when the stability
of the Aegean was again threatened in 179 B.C.E., Rome changed its policy and
conquered Macedon. The Romans opted for direct rule in the east in part because
successful warfare brought vast riches for the state, and honour and power to
military leaders. Complete Roman rule was established in the east in 133 B.C.E.
when flourishing Asia Minor was bequeathed to Rome.
Roman Domination of the Mediterranean
86 B.C.E.
Rome's success in its
territorial expansion can be credited to its military superiority and to its
policy of absorbing conquered peoples. Rome did not enforce absolute subjection,
for local governments, traditions and laws were respected, and conquered
subjects were encouraged to identify their well-being with Roman success. Rome
achieved this by granting full rights of citizenship to its nearest neighbours,
and partial citizenship or ally status to other subjects. All of Rome's subjects
had to pay taxes and provide military service in wartime, but it was understood
in these arrangements that partial citizenship and ally status would eventually
result in full citizenship, especially for those who became Romanized.
Julius Caesar
Courtesy of A Visual Compendium of Roman Emperors
Expansion during the
Late Roman Republic
(133 - 31 B.C.E.)
Military glory was
highly prized in Rome. Wars continued to be fought and the frontiers of the
Roman World were gradually extended outward as a result. During the last century
of the Republic, Roman generals won victories in northern Africa and in southern
France, where upon a Roman colony was settled in Narbonne and a road built to
link Italy with Spain. By 80 B.C.E., Syria was conquered and the province of
Asia was established. After 66 B.C.E., additional territory was conquered
further east where new provinces were founded and Jerusalem was conquered. In
areas where Roman expansion seemed problematic, client kingdoms were
established. In exchange for relative autonomy, these client states helped
defend the empire from foreign attack. At a later date, after years of living
under Roman dominion, these client kingdoms would be easily incorporated into
the empire without a war having been waged. Between 58 and 50 B.C.E., Julius
Caesar defeated the Celtic Gauls, thus conquering a large area corrsponding to
modern France and Belgium. Gaul would be divided into four provinces:
Narbonensis, Aquitania, Belgica and Lugdunensis. Caesar's campaigns spread Roman
language and civilization far beyond the Italian peninsula.
The Conquest of Gaul 52
B.C.E.
Rome after the Victory of Augustus
25 B.C.E.
Augustus
Courtesy of A Visual Compendium of Roman Emperors
Expansion during the
Early Roman Empire
(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 180)
When the Roman
Republic came to an end, the territorial frontiers of the Roman state were
poorly defined, but Augustus, Rome's first emperor (r. 27 B.C.E. - C.E. 14), led
campaigns that extended Roman influence to the natural boundaries defined by
desert, sea, ocean and river. His armies conquered all of North Africa, and
territory reaching as far east as the Red Sea and the Black Sea, as far west as
the Atlantic and north to the great rivers of central Europe: the Rhine and the
Danube. These rivers provided the northern frontier to the new provinces of
Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia that today encompass Switzerland and Austria. To
the east, the Danube provided the northern limit to the new provinces of
Pannonia and Moesia that encompass parts of present-day Slovenia, Hungary and
Bulgaria. The Rhine and the Danube, the northern frontier of the Roman World,
would prove to be the fatal weak link in Rome's defences by the fifth century.
As early as C.E. 9, when attempting to make territorial gains north of this
frontier, Augustus suffered the only defeat of his many military campaigns;
German tribes annihilated three Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest in
northwestern Germany. Augustus, now at the end of his reign, decided against
further expansion and urged his successor to do the same.
A Topographical Map of Germany
Rome at the time of the Defeat at Teutoburg Forest
C.E. 8
Although Augustus'
advice was heeded for several years, the next century did see the incorporation
of client kingdoms, and the successful annexation of Britain in C.E. 43 and of
the Agri Decumates, a triangle of territory at the junction of the Rhine and
Danube frontiers, in C.E. 74. Not all was well within the empire, however, and
revolts and uprisings within Roman provinces forced Rome to redirect some of its
troops from the Rhine and Danube frontiers to the rebellious areas. This move
left the northern frontiers ill-defended and open to border raids. Rome
responded to this threat by strengthening the frontier defences with additional
legions.
Deployment of the Legions
C.E. 100
Under Emperor Trajan
(r. 98 - 117), the Roman state reached its greatest extent. Client kingdoms on
the eastern frontier were incorporated and new provinces created. As well, Dacia
was conquered so as to distance hostile tribes from the dangerous Danube
frontier. Emperor Hadrian (r. 117 - 138) opposed territorial expansion but kept
the army at full strength, and built fortified boundaries across Britain (known
thereafter as Hadrian's Wall) and between the Rhine and Danube Rivers. His next
two successors faced rebellions in many of the borderlands and terrible assaults
against the frontiers. The Danube frontier collapsed and Germanic invaders,
pressed on from behind by the southward migration of other Germanic tribes,
crossed the northern provinces and raided northern Italy. When the frontiers
were once again secure, some invaders were settled along the Danube with land
grants in exchange for military service in defence of the Empire's frontiers.
Rome at its Greatest Extent, during the Reign of Emperor
Trajan C.E. 116
Detail from Trajan's Column
Courtesy of ArtServe, the Australian National University
Territorial Defence during the Late Roman Empire
(C.E. 180 - 476)
The third century
marks a clear reversal as Rome's military policy became one of defence rather
than territorial expansion. As the century progressed, the northern frontier was
seriously weakened as it fell victim to the increasingly heavy migration of
German tribes from northern Europe. The western and eastern halves of the empire
were attacked by successive waves of Goths, Vandals and Burgundians. Invaders
overwhelmed the frontiers, and the borderlands were abandoned by the Roman
troops. Many regions were lost to the invaders, and cities and towns were
pillaged or destroyed in both the west and the east; Athens was taken and
plundered in C.E. 267. During the late third and early fourth century centuries,
the borders were strenghtened and the number of legions increased, but these
efforts ultimately failed as wave after wave of Germanic peoples invaded and
settled in western Europe in the fifth century. Symbolic was the sack of Rome in
C.E. 410.
Rome at the Height of the Crisis of the Third Century
260 C.E.
The Sack of Rome C.E. 410
Territorial Expansion of the Roman World
Hochdorf Bronze Celtic Lion
Courtesy of Barbarians on the Greek Periphery? Origins of Celtic Art
Expansion during the
Early Roman Republic
(509 - 265 B.C.E.)
The Italian peninsula
was inhabited principally by several native tribes before the Greeks settled
there and the Etruscans rose to prominence sometime after 800 B.C.E. The Greeks
founded several city-states in the south of the peninsula and in Sicily, and the
Etruscans rose to power on the western coast where they brought their culture to
the Latin peoples settled in small villages along the Tiber River. Here, three
centuries later, a prosperous urban centre called Rome would emerge. Rome
flourished under the Etruscans but the Latin population resented sovereign
Etruscan rule and joined with other indigenous tribes in a rebellion. The
revolution of 509 B.C.E., which dethroned the Etruscan king and drove his people
from Rome, marks the beginning of the Roman Republic that would see Rome rise to
dominance around the Mediterranean. The Roman Republic continued until 31 B.C.E.
when it was replaced by the Roman Empire that would last well into the fifth
century C.E.
A Topographical Map of Italy
Greek Colonisation of the Mediterranean
650 B.C.E.
The Rise of Rome 380
B.C.E.
Beginning in 437
B.C.E., with the defeat and annexation of neighbouring towns, and over the
course of the next two centuries, Rome gradually expanded its territory and
political dominance over the peninsula. Even though Rome had a superior army, it
was not immune to attack. In 390 B.C.E, Celts swept down from the Po River
valley and captured and sacked Rome. Recovering quickly from this defeat, Rome
went on to successful future campaigns and by 235 B.C.E., after almost incessant
warfare with its neighbouring Etruscan and Italian city-states, all of the
Italian peninsula south of the Po Valley was conquered.
Roman and Carthaginian Territories in the Mediterranean
270 B.C.E.
Rome's successful
conquest of the Italian peninsula created a strong military ethos and provided
the Roman state with considerable manpower. When the unification of the
peninsula brought Rome into conflict with Carthage, a major power that
monopolized western Mediterranean trade from Northern Africa, Rome was inclined
to enter into war. Rome built up a fleet and in the three Punic Wars between 264
and 146 B.C.E., defeated the Carthaginian navy. From Carthage, Rome acquired the
territories of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain and Numidia (modern Tunisia) and
extended its dominance to all of the western Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean after the First Punic War
220 B.C.E.
The Second Punic War
219-202 B.C.E.
Expansion into the
eastern Mediterranean was achieved between 230 and 133 B.C.E. Initially, Rome
intervened in the east to protect itself from possible threat and to protect the
Greek city-states from territorial advances. Rome did not annex any territory at
first, treating Greece and Asia Minor as protectorates, but when the stability
of the Aegean was again threatened in 179 B.C.E., Rome changed its policy and
conquered Macedon. The Romans opted for direct rule in the east in part because
successful warfare brought vast riches for the state, and honour and power to
military leaders. Complete Roman rule was established in the east in 133 B.C.E.
when flourishing Asia Minor was bequeathed to Rome.
Roman Domination of the Mediterranean
86 B.C.E.
Rome's success in its
territorial expansion can be credited to its military superiority and to its
policy of absorbing conquered peoples. Rome did not enforce absolute subjection,
for local governments, traditions and laws were respected, and conquered
subjects were encouraged to identify their well-being with Roman success. Rome
achieved this by granting full rights of citizenship to its nearest neighbours,
and partial citizenship or ally status to other subjects. All of Rome's subjects
had to pay taxes and provide military service in wartime, but it was understood
in these arrangements that partial citizenship and ally status would eventually
result in full citizenship, especially for those who became Romanized.
Julius Caesar
Courtesy of A Visual Compendium of Roman Emperors
Expansion during the
Late Roman Republic
(133 - 31 B.C.E.)
Military glory was
highly prized in Rome. Wars continued to be fought and the frontiers of the
Roman World were gradually extended outward as a result. During the last century
of the Republic, Roman generals won victories in northern Africa and in southern
France, where upon a Roman colony was settled in Narbonne and a road built to
link Italy with Spain. By 80 B.C.E., Syria was conquered and the province of
Asia was established. After 66 B.C.E., additional territory was conquered
further east where new provinces were founded and Jerusalem was conquered. In
areas where Roman expansion seemed problematic, client kingdoms were
established. In exchange for relative autonomy, these client states helped
defend the empire from foreign attack. At a later date, after years of living
under Roman dominion, these client kingdoms would be easily incorporated into
the empire without a war having been waged. Between 58 and 50 B.C.E., Julius
Caesar defeated the Celtic Gauls, thus conquering a large area corrsponding to
modern France and Belgium. Gaul would be divided into four provinces:
Narbonensis, Aquitania, Belgica and Lugdunensis. Caesar's campaigns spread Roman
language and civilization far beyond the Italian peninsula.
The Conquest of Gaul 52
B.C.E.
Rome after the Victory of Augustus
25 B.C.E.
Augustus
Courtesy of A Visual Compendium of Roman Emperors
Expansion during the
Early Roman Empire
(31 B.C.E. - C.E. 180)
When the Roman
Republic came to an end, the territorial frontiers of the Roman state were
poorly defined, but Augustus, Rome's first emperor (r. 27 B.C.E. - C.E. 14), led
campaigns that extended Roman influence to the natural boundaries defined by
desert, sea, ocean and river. His armies conquered all of North Africa, and
territory reaching as far east as the Red Sea and the Black Sea, as far west as
the Atlantic and north to the great rivers of central Europe: the Rhine and the
Danube. These rivers provided the northern frontier to the new provinces of
Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia that today encompass Switzerland and Austria. To
the east, the Danube provided the northern limit to the new provinces of
Pannonia and Moesia that encompass parts of present-day Slovenia, Hungary and
Bulgaria. The Rhine and the Danube, the northern frontier of the Roman World,
would prove to be the fatal weak link in Rome's defences by the fifth century.
As early as C.E. 9, when attempting to make territorial gains north of this
frontier, Augustus suffered the only defeat of his many military campaigns;
German tribes annihilated three Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest in
northwestern Germany. Augustus, now at the end of his reign, decided against
further expansion and urged his successor to do the same.
A Topographical Map of Germany
Rome at the time of the Defeat at Teutoburg Forest
C.E. 8
Although Augustus'
advice was heeded for several years, the next century did see the incorporation
of client kingdoms, and the successful annexation of Britain in C.E. 43 and of
the Agri Decumates, a triangle of territory at the junction of the Rhine and
Danube frontiers, in C.E. 74. Not all was well within the empire, however, and
revolts and uprisings within Roman provinces forced Rome to redirect some of its
troops from the Rhine and Danube frontiers to the rebellious areas. This move
left the northern frontiers ill-defended and open to border raids. Rome
responded to this threat by strengthening the frontier defences with additional
legions.
Deployment of the Legions
C.E. 100
Under Emperor Trajan
(r. 98 - 117), the Roman state reached its greatest extent. Client kingdoms on
the eastern frontier were incorporated and new provinces created. As well, Dacia
was conquered so as to distance hostile tribes from the dangerous Danube
frontier. Emperor Hadrian (r. 117 - 138) opposed territorial expansion but kept
the army at full strength, and built fortified boundaries across Britain (known
thereafter as Hadrian's Wall) and between the Rhine and Danube Rivers. His next
two successors faced rebellions in many of the borderlands and terrible assaults
against the frontiers. The Danube frontier collapsed and Germanic invaders,
pressed on from behind by the southward migration of other Germanic tribes,
crossed the northern provinces and raided northern Italy. When the frontiers
were once again secure, some invaders were settled along the Danube with land
grants in exchange for military service in defence of the Empire's frontiers.
Rome at its Greatest Extent, during the Reign of Emperor
Trajan C.E. 116
Detail from Trajan's Column
Courtesy of ArtServe, the Australian National University
Territorial Defence during the Late Roman Empire
(C.E. 180 - 476)
The third century
marks a clear reversal as Rome's military policy became one of defence rather
than territorial expansion. As the century progressed, the northern frontier was
seriously weakened as it fell victim to the increasingly heavy migration of
German tribes from northern Europe. The western and eastern halves of the empire
were attacked by successive waves of Goths, Vandals and Burgundians. Invaders
overwhelmed the frontiers, and the borderlands were abandoned by the Roman
troops. Many regions were lost to the invaders, and cities and towns were
pillaged or destroyed in both the west and the east; Athens was taken and
plundered in C.E. 267. During the late third and early fourth century centuries,
the borders were strenghtened and the number of legions increased, but these
efforts ultimately failed as wave after wave of Germanic peoples invaded and
settled in western Europe in the fifth century. Symbolic was the sack of Rome in
C.E. 410.
Rome at the Height of the Crisis of the Third Century
260 C.E.
The Sack of Rome C.E. 410
